Introduction

Ohio NCA schools are thoroughly committed to district and school improvement. A strong foundation of performance-based accreditation has been built through performance accountability for districts, continuous improvement planning, improved school improvement plans, and the provision of professional development opportunities. In many Ohio school districts, the NCA school improvement process is the most widely used strategy for planning and evaluating school improvement. The staff members in these schools need staff development opportunities to learn about school improvement and the specific interventions in their school improvement plan.

School improvement and restructuring are intimately related to teachers' professional development (Novick, 1996). Professional development may include traditional workshops, peer coaching, self-reflection, school/university partnerships, and action research. The opportunities seem almost limitless. For example, the Ohio NCA Committee in fall 1999 offered full and half-day workshops for Improving Student Performance I and II, Evaluation I and II, External Chair Academy, Internal Chair Academy, and NCA Software Training. Training educators in the process of school improvement and changing education practice takes time, funding, and collaborative problem solving. However, it is the "time" that teachers find scarce (Darling-Hammond, 1993). Staff development needs are great, but teachers in this country are provided very little release time to learn and practice the skills needed.

The Problem

The question of "time" was posed during an Ohio NCA internal teams training session. A principal responded that the scarcity of substitute teachers jeopardizes release time for regular teachers to participate in professional development in his school. That comment prompted the initiation of the present study.

Background material available on substitute teachers consisted of school district documents, case studies, and testimony. The emphasis was on recruitment, district handbooks, and orientation to prepare substitute teachers for work in the district (Griswold & Hughes, 1996). Some sources contain discussions of the critical shortage of substitute teachers in urban districts.

The investigation included three sequential studies or stages. The first study, conducted in fall 1995, consisted of a survey on a stratified random sample (the number was based on the proportion estimation formula) of 140 Ohio school districts. Three years later, in the second stage, a similar study was conducted on the same sample of school districts. In the third study (2000) a telephone survey of all NCA state offices was conducted, with the aim of relating substitute teacher situation in the NCA region to the conditions in Ohio for purposes of informal generalization.

Four research questions served as the basis for the investigation of the problem:

The first three questions were treated primarily in the first study. The fourth question was the main focus in the second, and all questions were treated in the third study.

Methodology

Studies One and Two

The sample of districts was stratified by school district types (city, local and ex-empted villages) in Ohio and was randomized within strata. Surveys were mailed in October 1995 to district superintendents. These same 140 districts were sent questionnaires again in October 1998.

In the first study, a 20-item questionnaire (Griswold & Hughes, 1996) was developed with content appropriate to the four research questions. The 15-item questionnaire used in the second study was similar but updated to tap information about longitudinal changes.

Study Three

In the third study (2000), all 20 NCA state directors were contacted. Telephone interviews of 15 to 20 minutes were conducted. The following questions were used as prompts:

Responses to the questions were recorded in writing by the author. Additional discussion issues were also noted. Direct quotes were not cited because the intent was to capture general patterns across the states.

Results

Demographics of the Study

The response rates of the 1995 and 1998 surveys were, respectively, 82% and 61%. All returned questionnaires were usable.

A small majority of the districts had between 1000 and 2999 students. "Rural" was the most common location category. For the estimate of wealth, the range of $4,000-$4,999 per pupil expenditure was reported by a half and a third of the districts in the two surveys, respectively. Only 5% and 10%, respectively, were at the top range of per pupil expenditures (>$6,000) and 24% and 7% were at the lowest range of per pupil expenditures ($3,000-$3,999).

Findings

The following findings are reported as responses to each of the four research questions, listed in respective order:

Question 1. What is the availability of qualified substitute teachers and what are the related factors?

In Ohio a serious shortage of substitute teachers was reported, with 42% of the superintendents reporting that they have a serious problem, while nearly 54% reported that it is a problem under certain circumstances. Written responses included: "We do not have ample numbers available," "Shortages are increasingly evident," "Tremendous shortage," "Epidemic! No substitutes available," "Often have to curtail professional development opportunities due to lack of substitutes," "Our county has less than 35 substitutes available for normal use. Frequently, no one is available." There appeared to be no relationship between availability of substitute teachers and the demographic variables of the schools.

The shortage of substitute teachers in the NCA region seems clear. In 2000, 17 (85%) of the state offices indicated a shortage; nine indicated a severe shortage. Sixteen state offices reported a state licensing or certification requirement. Only seven states require a college degree for substitute teacher certification. Nine states reported that the average per diem rate for substitutes was greater than $70; the maximum was $100.

Question 2. What district procedures are used to maintain a pool of substitutes?

In 1995 81% of the Ohio districts relied on the application process for locating substitutes, with 52% depending on "word of mouth." Recruitment procedures also included using local advertising, using the county service center, using the local cable channel, and asking teacher applicants to place their names on the substitute list.

The professional incentives for substitutes appear limited. A daily rate of pay of "less than $50" was reported by 19% of the respondents; a similar percentage was reported for the $60-$69 range. Figure 1 illustrates reported compensation for substitute teachers in Ohio in 1995 and 1998. The light gray bars represent reported rate of pay in 1995. The dark bars represent reported rate of pay in 1998. The responses indicate that substitute teacher compensation improved in all categories. Lower rates of pay were reported less often in 1998, with the largest change in the number of schools who increased substitute teacher per diem from the $50-$59 range to the $60-$69 range. When filling vacant teaching positions, preference is usually given to substitutes (76%), but less than 2% of the districts include substitutes as part of the formal bargaining unit. In some districts (9%) there is no employment incentive at all because they rely on permanent substitutes instead of traditional substitutes to fill in for absent teachers.

Figure 1

Question 3. What impact does a shortage of substitutes have on school improvement efforts and professional development?

In 1995, 55% of the sampled Ohio districts reported involvement with NCA in developing a school improvement plan. Sixty percent were applying for one or more of the state grants that involve a planning and evaluation component, the most common being Ohio Venture Capital Grants program, which emphasizes school restructuring through professional development. Twenty-two percent of the districts reported involvement with NCA and Venture Grant. Thirty-two percent of the districts indicated they were engaged in "other" school improvement activities.

When asked if the school improvement activities involved teachers during the school day, 92% responded "yes." When asked to what extent school improvement activities have been jeopardized by inadequate numbers of substitute teachers, 13% said "frequently" and 71% said "occasionally."

Superintendents were asked if they had "limited teacher participation in professional development activities that require teacher absence from the classroom." Fifty-two percent responded affirmatively. There was no relationship between the response and district size or wealth. Thirty percent indicated that professional development activities were limited by the availability of substitutes.

At the regional level, it was reported that school improvement efforts were impacted in the following ways:

Question 4. What kinds of longitudinal changes were made by districts that had a shortage of qualified substitutes?

In the 1998 survey, 59% of the respondents noted that their district had "initiated changes to reduce the substitute teacher shortage." Generally districts attempted to relieve shortages through recruitment efforts, including recruiting individuals holding non-teaching degrees. Substitute pay has been increased although less than 5% of the schools exceed the $79 per diem rate.

In the third study, the solutions for alleviating the shortages were quite diverse, but three patterns emerged. The patterns are organized into these areas: (1) increase the pool of substitutes, (2) restructure the teachers' planning time, and (3) modify professional development requirements. For each pattern, specific solutions are listed.

1. Increase substitute pool.

2. Limit need for substitutes by restructuring teachers' planning time and teaching schedule.

3. Modify professional development requirements or compensation.

Discussion

Studies one and two supported the conventional wisdom that there is a shortage of qualified substitute teachers in Ohio, that the shortage interferes with school improvement, and that little change was made over the three year period. The third study suggests that the shortages, solutions, and effect on NCA activities found in Ohio seem common across all of the NCA states. School improvement efforts across the states are increasing, and the need for teacher release time for professional development activities will increase.

When teachers become involved in school improvement activities, their temporary replacements should be qualified for the job. Across the NCA region, substitutes may be required to have anything from a teaching certificate to less than a high school diploma. Substitute teachers should also receive appropriate professional support and remuneration. It is ironic that the process of school improvement that is intended to increase student performance may result in limited teacher participation and replacement of those teachers with less qualified substitutes. To improve student performance, students need to be engaged in effective instruction every day. The expectations for effective instruction on days when the regular teacher is absent are no less important. Few districts provide orientation, let alone professional development, for substitute teachers. Commonly, substitutes follow the teacher's regular instructional plan but will find little support beyond lesson plans, seating charts, school schedule or class procedures.

Lack of substitutes will continue to jeopardize school improvement activities unless early morning, after school and/or summer work is scheduled, or the number of qualified substitutes is increased. More substitutes might be found if schools were successful in increasing the status of substitute teachers through greater support from the schools, participation in professional development activities, and improved pay. Children and parents should be assured that the substitute teacher has the skills and the school support equivalent to those of the regular teacher. Both the classroom teacher and the substitute should be similarly certified professional educators. School improvement implementation should include substitutes in the planning and the required professional development. How can we be satisfied with the status quo for substitute teachers when more is being expected from students and our regular teachers?

References

Darling-Hammond, L. (1993). Reframing the school reform agenda: Developing capacity for schools transformation. Phi Delta Kappa, 74(10), 752-761.

Griswold, P. A. & Hughes, W. (1996). The substitute teacher: An overlooked link in the restructuring of professional development. Paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the New England Educational Research Organization, Portsmouth, NH, April, 1996.

Griswold, P. A. & Hughes, W. (1999). The vexing problem of perennial substitute teacher shortages in Ohio. Paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the Mid-Western Educational Research Association, Chicago, October 1999.

Koelling, C. H. (1983). Substitute teachers: School policies and procedures in the North Central Region. Education, 104(2), 155-171.

Novick, R. (1996). Actual schools, possible practices: New directions in professional development. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 4(14) [Whole issue].

Ohio Administrative Rules. (1996). Columbus: Department of Education.

Ohio Department of Education. (1999, June). Coming into Focus. Columbus: Author.

Ohio Educational Management Information System. (1999). EMIS 1995-97. Columbus: Ohio Department of Education. http://www.ode.state.oh.us/emis/